motivation is defined as a set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, and determines the direction, intensity, and persistence of work effort.
motivation is a critical consideration, because effective job performance often requires high level of both ability and motivation.

expectancy theory describes motivation as involving a cognitive process.
expectancy represents the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task

equity theory acknowledges that motivation doesn’t just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people.
Employees create a “mental ledger” of the outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job duties.

S.M.A.R.T. goals: specific, measurable, achievable, results- based, time- sensitive goals.

needs can be thought of as groupings or clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences.

Merit pay represents the most common element of origanzational compensation plans, yet the pay increase for top performers is only modestly greater than the pay increase for average performers. Moreover, the effects of merit pay raise depend largely on what employees expect to get, and it can be difficult for managers to effectively manage those expectations.

according to expectancy theory, factors affect work effort:
1, expectancy theory describes motivation as involving a cognitive process.
expectancy represents the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task
according to expectancy theory, factors affect work effort:
2, self- efficacy is defined as the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviours required for task success.
3, instrumentality represents the belief that successful performance will result in some outcomes. instrumentality is a set of subjective probabilities, each ranging from 0-1 that successsful performance will bring a set of outcomes.
4, valence reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance.
5, needs can bethought of as groupings or clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences.

psychological empowerment reflects an energy rooted in the belief that work tasks contribute to some large purpose.
- meaningfulness: captures the value of a work goal or purpose, relative to a person’s own ideals and passions.
- self-determination: reflects a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks.
-competence captures a person’s belief in his or hr capability to perform work tasks successful.
- impact reflects the sense that a person’s actions” make a difference”- that progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose.

The motivating forve with the strongest performance effect is self- efficacy/ competence, because people whofeel a sense of internal self- confidence tend to outperform those who doubt their capabilities.

meaning of money: the degree to which they view money as having symbolic, not just economic, value. the symbolic value of money can be summarized in at least three dimensions: achievements, repect, and freedom.

motivation is defined as a set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, and determines the direction, intensity, and persistence of work effort.

extrinsic motivation（外在动机） is motivation that is controlled by some contingency（可能性） that depends on task performance.( pay, bonuses, promotions, benefits and perks, job security)
intrinsic motivation is motivation that is felt when task performance serves as its own reward. ( enjoyment, interestingness, accomplishment, skill development, personal expression)

equity theory acknowledges that motivation doesn’t just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people.
Employees create a “mental ledger” of the outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job duties.
inputs and outcomes: this theory is all about subjective evaluations of our exchange relationships.
inputs: what we bring to these exchanges.( effort, performance, education, training, seniority, skills, positive attitude, experience, high performance)
outcomes: what we got out of these exchanges( pay, fringe benefits, status symbols, satisfying supervision, recognition, meaningful work, money, promotions)
equity distress: an internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios.
equity: i/o ratio for self= i/o ratio for comparison others.
possible tactics for reducing inequity:
actually change one’s inputs pr one’s outcomes.
perceptually distort one’s own inputs or outcomes.
perceptually distort the inputs or outcomes of the comparison person or group.
choose another comparison person or group.
leave the exchange relationship.